The opening paragraph of the Catechism of the Catholic Church summarizes the whole of the Christian life and, thereby, the purpose of Catholic theology:

God, infinitely perfect and blessed in himself, in a plan of sheer goodness freely created man to make him share in his own blessed life. For this reason, at every time and in every place, God draws close to man. He calls man to seek him, to know him, to love him with all his strength. He calls together all men, scattered and divided by sin, into the unity of his family, the Church. To accomplish this, when the fullness of time had come, God sent his Son as Redeemer and Savior. In his Son and through him, he invites men to become, in the Holy Spirit, his adopted children and thus heirs of his blessed life. (<em>CCC</em> no. 1)

The profound significance of the very first word of the Catechism is difficult to overestimate. As an authoritative summary of Catholic faith and morals (CCC no. 11), the Catechism begins with God. Why? God is the beginning and the end of Christian doctrine. Likewise, God is the center of sacred theology. A Christian life without God is impossible. Moreover, Catholic theology without God is unintelligible.

In these carefully selected and arranged words, the Catechism highlights the fact that God is “infinitely perfect and blessed in himself.” God does not suffer from any needs or privations. He is perfection. Thus, the existence of creatures does not originate from any insufficiency within God. Rather, all creatures—including rational creatures, whether men or angels—proceed from God’s “plan of sheer goodness.” Creatures exist because God is infinitely good.

God created to share his goodness with his creatures. He did not create in order to receive something that he lacked. He “freely created man to make him share in his [God’s] own blessed life.” God’s loving wisdom accounts for the creation of the human person. Moreover, his good and loving wisdom informs the inherent structures of creation in general and the nature of the human person in particular. Because God created man to share himself with man, “at every time and in every place, God draws close to man.”

There are no barriers between God and the human person. The Christian faith denies any conceptions about God that would posit spatial or affective distance between God and creatures. The God who creates sustains his creation in existence. The Christian faith utterly rejects deistic conceptions of the deity and of creation. God is not an absent watchmaker.

Consequently, God “calls man to seek him, to know him, to love him with all his strength.” God’s presence to his creatures is such that he enables human persons not only to be known or loved by God, but also to know and to love God themselves. No creature can self-create. Moreover, as a creature of God, the human person is created for God. Thus, the created reality of humanity is not simply passive in nature. It is part of the primordial vocation of the human person to pursue God through the active powers of knowing and loving.

The human orientation to God is expressed even in the human experience of things other than God. All truth is God’s truth. All truthful knowledge is ultimately oriented to God because all of reality bears a God-oriented shape and direction. And the human person is uniquely called to pursue God in a specifically rational way through knowledge and love. In its very first paragraph, the Catechism provides a roadmap for the whole of human life and the whole of Catholic thought. In other words, this single paragraph gives a concise account of the essence of Catholic theology.

The Catechism continues to expound the human orientation to God:

The desire for God is written in the human heart, because man is created by God and for God; and God never ceases to draw man to himself. Only in God will he find the truth and happiness he never stops searching for: “The dignity of man rests above all on the fact that he is called to communion with God. This invitation to converse with God is addressed to man as soon as he comes into being. For if man exists, it is because God has created him through love, and through love continues to hold him in existence. He cannot live fully according to truth unless he freely acknowledges that love and entrusts himself to his creator.” (<em>CCC</em> no. 27)

This paragraph is significant because it highlights the fact that the human orientation to God is natural. A “God-ward” inclination is impressed upon human nature itself. There has never been a human person who is not ordered toward God.

Thus, our primordial vocation to know and love God is not a consequence of moral disorder. Original sin is not the cause of Catholic theology. Of course, God’s revelation does heal, elevate, and transform human understanding. Nonetheless, the foundational point remains: all human persons are inclined by nature to know God. As the Catechism says: “The desire for God is written in the human heart, because man is created by God and for God.”

There is no such thing as a non-theological human person. The principle behind this (perhaps startling) claim lies in two facts: (1) God is the creator of all creatures, and (2) human persons—as rational creatures—can understand that God is their creator. Not only can human persons understand that God is their creator, but they can also understand that God is their end. Hence, in a very real sense, the human person is situated between God and God. By its very nature, human reason seeks to understand human existence in relation to God. Rational reflection that does not eventually advert to God is a frustrated—or, at least, incomplete—reflection.

In a very real sense, then, every human person is potentially a theologian (i.e., someone who studies the truth about God). The irrepressible human search for happiness and fulfillment is ultimately a search for God. Even if we do not realize it, every single decision we make is inspired by the desire to know God.

As we will see, Catholic theology is not a natural discipline but rather a sacred science—proceeding from divinely revealed principles (or first truths). It originates from the wisdom and love of the God who lovingly ordained to redeem the fallen human creatures he created. Catholic theology is not contrary to human nature. This sacred science heals, perfects, elevates, and transforms human nature, which is at its root oriented to the divine. In a word, Catholic theology is a consequence of a profound mystery: “God ‘desires all men to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth’: that is, of Jesus Christ” (CCC no. 74).

I. What Does “Catholic Theology” Mean?

Interestingly, the phrase “Catholic theology” does not appear a single time in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. Initially, this absence may seem to testify against the validity of Catholic theology. The opposite, however, is true. Catholic theology is not a discipline that subsists in an absolutely independent manner. Rather, the nature of “Catholic” and the nature of “theology,” together evince not only the legitimacy of Catholic theology but also the discipline’s necessity for the Christian life. The authentic meaning of Catholic theology only becomes evident through an adequate understanding of the meaning of “Catholic” and “theology.”

The Meaning of “Catholic”

The Catechism explains that “the word ‘catholic’ means ‘universal,’ in the sense of ‘according to the totality’ or ‘in keeping with the whole’” (CCC no. 830). Thus, the meaning of “catholic” is contrary to divisive or sectarian notions. Catholicity bespeaks totality, wholeness, and universality.

Of course, this explains why the Church that Christ instituted is fully “catholic.” Citing St. Ignatius of Antioch, the Catechism explains that “the Church is catholic because Christ is present in her. ‘Where there is Christ Jesus, there is the Catholic Church’” (CCC no. 830). The Church is catholic in the sense that she receives—in a universal and comprehensive way—her existence, identity, and mission from Jesus Christ, the “head” of the Church. The Church is intensively Catholic. This point accentuates the essential unity of the Church and of the faith she has received from her Savior, Jesus Christ. The Church did not create or institute herself. The Church is the work of Our Lord, and there is no part of the Church that is intelligible apart from Our Lord. In other words, all dimensions of the Church’s faith, teaching, worship, and prayer are suffused with Jesus himself. The Church is intensively Catholic because Jesus Christ informs the entirety of the Church. In every aspect of the Church, one encounters the whole Christ.

The Church is also extensively “catholic.” “The Church is catholic because she has been sent out by Christ on a mission to the whole of the human race” (CCC no. 831). The mission of the Church does not suffer discriminatory or exclusionary limitations. “All men are called to belong to the new People of God. This People, therefore, while remaining one and only one, is to be spread throughout the whole world and to all ages in order that the design of God’s will may be fulfilled.” The wisdom of God’s order is present both in creation and in redemption. God “made human nature one in the beginning and has decreed that all his children who were scattered should be finally gathered together as one” in Christ’s Church (CCC no. 831).

The Catechism (invoking the Second Vatican Council’s Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Lumen gentium, no. 13) shows that the extensive sense of “catholic” follows directly from the intensive sense of the word. “The character of universality which adorns the People of God is a gift from the Lord himself whereby the Catholic Church ceaselessly and efficaciously seeks for the return of all humanity and all its goods, under Christ the Head in the unity of his Spirit” (CCC no. 831). God created all. God sent his Eternal Son, Jesus Christ, for the redemption of all. Therefore, the Church that Christ instituted bears the “all-ness”—the catholicity—of God’s divine wisdom and love.

The meaning of “catholic” bears consequences for the meaning of Catholic theology. Catholic theology is an ecclesial discipline. This discipline—precisely as catholic—exists because of the nature, identity, and mission of Christ’s one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church. Catholic theology is absolutely dependent upon the truth of God as creator and redeemer. And because God’s creative and redemptive works institutionally culminate in the Church, Catholic theology always operates within this ecclesial context. Any theology within Christ’s Church necessarily bears the catholicity of Christ’s Church.

A God-centered universality characterizes Catholic theology. Catholic theology reflects the dual intensive and extensive range of divine providence, which “consists of the dispositions by which God guides all his creatures with wisdom and love to their ultimate end” (CCC no. 321, see also no. 302). The God who created all good things directs the things he has created. The divinely-instilled order of created reality—in everything from the most minute, subatomic particle to the highest of angels—is evident in the natures that God has created. What something is—its definition, its essence, and its identity—reflects the providential order that God has instilled within it. A thing’s very nature proclaims the providential order of God. It is this providential order which lies at the very heart of Catholic theology.

The Meaning of “Theology”

In a way deeply resonant with its presentation of the term “catholic,” the Catechism of the Catholic Church explains “theology” with contextual reference to divine providence. Thus, the Catechism explains theology (theologia) in relation to the dynamics of the divine economy (oikonomia):

The Fathers of the Church distinguish between theology (<em>theologia</em>) and economy (<em>oikonomia</em>). “Theology” refers to the mystery of God’s inmost life within the Blessed Trinity and “economy” to all the works by which God reveals himself and communicates his life. Through the <em>oikonomia</em> the <em>theologia</em> is revealed to us; but conversely, the <em>theologia</em> illuminates the whole <em>oikonomia</em>. God’s works reveal who he is in himself; the mystery of his inmost being enlightens our understanding of all his works. So it is, analogously, among human persons. A person discloses himself in his actions, and the better we know a person, the better we understand his actions. (<em>CCC</em> no. 236)

At root, “theology” refers to the reality of God himself (“the mystery of God’s inmost life within the Blessed Trinity”). Who God is, in his inmost depths, is the object of theology.

The Catechism links theology to “all the works by which God reveals himself and communicates his life” to rational creatures. God’s self-manifestationhis revelation of himself—falls within the economic order of divine providence. This order is what God does outside of himself in and for created reality. Theology originates from God and is oriented toward God. God discloses himself to us by his works, and his self-disclosure enables us to see the intelligibility of his works.

God tells us who he is. And who he is illumines the things that God does. God’s revelation of himself takes place within the context of divine providence and clarifies the providential order of all things in relation to God.

All of these themes are deeply consonant with the etymology of the word “theology.” “Theology” comes from the Greek word θεολογία (theológia). This Greek word is the conjunction of two other Greek words: Θεός (theós) and λόγος (lógos). Theós means “god” (Kittle and Friedrich, Theological Dictionary, 322). Lógos can be translated as “word,” “discourse,” “account,” or even “reasoning.” “As a mental activity,” lógos “has the basic sense ‘to reckon’ or ‘to explain’” (Kittle and Friedrich, Theological Dictionary, 506). Thus, the word “theology” literally means some type of “word” or discourse about God: “the first meaning of the Greek θεολογία [theológia], which designates a hymn, a glorification of God by the λόγος [lógos], man’s expressed thought” (Bouyer, Eucharist, 5). The Latin language appropriated this Greek word “theologia.”

Theology is discourse about God. Such discourse necessarily presupposes knowledge. Discourse is impossible in the absence of knowledge (even in the case of mystical knowledge about God). The knowledge that theological discourse presupposes resides, first and foremost, within God himself. God would be unable to reveal himself in the economic order of divine providence if he did not fully understand himself. God can reveal himself because God supremely understands himself. It is difficult to overemphasize the foundational importance of God’s self-knowledge. God’s knowledge of himself is the foundation of our understanding of him. The one God—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—is himself knowable because he first knows himself.

Additionally, theological discourse also presupposes the fact that God’s knowledge of himself is communicable to rational creatures. In other words, God’s knowledge of himself is not completely secluded within himself. True knowledge about God is not foreign to human understanding. “Man’s faculties make him capable of coming to a knowledge of the existence of a personal God. But for man to be able to enter into real intimacy with him, God willed both to reveal himself to man and to give him the grace of being able to welcome this revelation in faith” (CCC no. 35). Theology is possible because God has revealed his intelligibility. The theologian Avery Dulles explains: “Because revelation proceeds from the divine intelligence and is addressed to human intelligence, it calls for reflective assimilation” (Dulles, Craft of Theology, 105). Hence, God’s revelation of himself depends first upon God’s actual knowledge of himself, and secondly upon the human person’s real capacity to participate in God’s knowledge of himself.

Of course, God’s knowledge essentially transcends human categories of understanding (see CCC no. 42). It is not possible for a creature to know God in the same way that God knows himself. God’s knowledge is essentially united to his being. And because his being is infinite, his knowledge is likewise infinite. As creatures, human persons are finite. Therefore, human persons cannot receive God’s knowledge in the same way that it exists within the divine being.

God understands himself—and all thingsin a simple manner. He is his understanding. His knowledge does not advance or develop. It is always perfect and complete. In contrast, earthly human knowledge understands God—and all things—in a complex manner. We are not our understanding. The advancement of our knowledge advances through discursive steps.

Nonetheless, human persons can be conformed to the reality of divine being and knowledge in a way that is properly human. Although human persons cannot know God as God knows himself, they can still, albeit in a creaturely manner, truly know him. Were this real and true knowledge of God impossible, divine revelation would be impossible. And if divine revelation is impossible, then the theological discourse that follows upon the providential reality of divine providence would also be impossible.

Yet divine revelation is not only possible. It is actual. God has really revealed himself to human persons (Heb 1:1–2). Thus, the practice of theology is one of the greatest dignities of the human person: discourse about the reality of God (CCC no. 48). The simple and perfect God is truly an object of human knowledge.

In sum, theology is discourse about God. And discourse about God requires knowledge of God. Therefore, theology is intimately connected with knowledge about God.

Different Kinds of Knowledge about God

Theology is discourse about God and follows from knowledge about God. Unsurprisingly, different kinds of knowledge about God will result in different kinds of theology.

There are two ways that humans can come to knowledge about God. These two ways of knowing the truth about God are distinguished by two different kinds of intellectual light. Light illumines an object—enabling us to perceive the illumined object. Likewise, the human intellect requires “light” in order to know something.

The first kind of intellectual light is the natural light of reason. The second is the supernatural light of faith. The distinction between the light of reason and the light of faith is real. The light of reason and the light of faith are not identical. Nonetheless, the two lights are inherently complementary. The light of reason and the light of faith do not stand in competitive tension within the human intellect. Both lights, in different orders, enable the human person to know the truth about who God is and what God has done. Both reason and faith illumine the order of divine providence.

Knowledge of God by the Light of Human Reason: Natural Theology

The Catechism explains that “Our holy mother, the Church, holds and teaches that God, the first principle and last end of all things, can be known with certainty from the created world by the natural light of human reason” (CCC no. 36). The natural light of human reason can arrive at certain knowledge about God, who is the origin and the end of all things. Consequently, he is not completely inaccessible to the native capacity of human knowledge.

Nevertheless, the natural light of human reason cannot approach God directly. In this life, the power of human understanding does not enjoy immediate access to God. God lies beyond the unmediated discovery of human reason. Thus, the natural light of human reason requires intermediate means and steps through which it can arrive at knowledge about God. In other words, natural knowledge about God is indirect and inferential.

Human reason can only conclude to knowledge about God through knowledge of things other than God. Human reason is able to know God by way of “the created world.” Because God is the creator of all that is, all that is points to God. Created reality provides human reason with refracted access to the creator because created reality is contingent. It does not exist in and of itself. In terms of both its essence and its existence, creation depends upon a creator. Therefore, human knowledge about created reality—something that human knowledge can know directly—points to the reality of the creator.

The world, and man, attest that they contain within themselves neither their first principle nor their final end, but rather that they participate in Being itself, which alone is without origin or end. Thus, in different ways, man can come to know that there exists a reality which is the first cause and final end of all things, a reality “that everyone calls ‘God.’” (<em>CCC</em> no. 34)

The insufficiency of the created order points to the all-sufficiency of the creator. Romans 1:20 explains: “Ever since the creation of the world [God’s] invisible nature, namely, his eternal power and deity, has been clearly perceived in the things that have been made.”{1} Thus, “starting from movement, becoming, contingency, and the world’s order and beauty, one can come to a knowledge of God as the origin and the end of the universe” (CCC no. 32).

This natural knowledge about God arising from the created order gives rise to the discipline that is called natural theology (see McInerny, Natural Theology; Levering, Proofs of God). Natural knowledge about God leads to natural theology. Because of natural theology’s exclusive dependence upon the light of human reason, natural theology is a properly philosophical discipline. Specifically, natural theology resides at the heights of the philosophical science of metaphysics (the science of being itself). The natural theological considerations of metaphysics ponder such things as the proofs for the existence of God, the divine nature itself, and natural knowledge of the divine essence (i.e., God’s simplicity, perfection, goodness, infinity, omnipresence, immutability, eternality, and unity).

Knowledge of God by the Light of Divine Faith: Sacred Theology

Natural knowledge about God is authentic knowledge. Through the light of human reason, human persons can arrive at naturally knowable truths about God. Consequently, natural theology is a legitimate discipline. Nonetheless, the Catechism observes that “man experiences many difficulties in coming to know God by the light of reason alone.”

Though human reason is, strictly speaking, truly capable by its own natural power and light of attaining to a true and certain knowledge of the one personal God, who watches over and controls the world by his providence, and of the natural law written in our hearts by the Creator; yet there are many obstacles which prevent reason from the effective and fruitful use of this inborn faculty. For the truths that concern the relations between God and man wholly transcend the visible order of things, and, if they are translated into human action and influence it, they call for self-surrender and abnegation. The human mind, in its turn, is hampered in the attaining of such truths, not only by the impact of the senses and the imagination, but also by disordered appetites which are the consequences of original sin. So it happens that men in such matters easily persuade themselves that what they would not like to be true is false or at least doubtful. (<em>CCC</em> no. 37)

Natural theology is not an easy discipline. Because such theology is founded upon the native capacities of the human person and the dynamics of natural knowledge, many obstacles may impede the progress of natural theology. These obstacles are among the reasons “why man stands in need of being enlightened by God’s revelation’” (CCC no. 38).

God is the principle and the end of the human person, and thus human knowledge about God is supremely relevant to human flourishing. God, in his goodness, has ordained to share with the human person, in a direct manner, knowledge about himself. This revealed knowledge is the knowledge of divine revelation, knowledge that God communicates to the human person and that the human person receives through the light of faith.

Since divine revelation imparts to the human person knowledge about God in a direct manner, it is true to say that “faith is above reason” (CCC no. 159). Nonetheless, “there can never be any real discrepancy between faith and reason. Since the same God who reveals mysteries and infuses faith has bestowed the light of reason on the human mind, God cannot deny himself, nor can truth ever contradict truth” (CCC no. 159).

Indeed, the light of reason is important for the light of faith. Were the human person unable to know God through the light of reason, the human person would be unable to know God through the light of faith. Divine revelation presupposes the natural capacity of human intelligence. “If revelation were basically incompatible with human rationality, then there would be no point in doing theology as classically understood” (Nichols, Shape of Catholic Theology, 37). The light of human reason is a precondition for the light of faith. Indeed, the natural capacity of human reason is so foundational that “without this capacity, man would not be able to welcome God’s revelation” (CCC no. 36).

Divine faith, thus, elevates, perfects, and transforms human reason. “Just as grace builds on nature and brings it to fulfilment, so faith builds upon and perfects reason” (John Paul II, Fides et ratio, no. 43). Faith aids human reason with respect to theological truths accessible to natural human reason and with respect to those theological truths (i.e., the sacred mysteries) that are beyond the native discovery of human reason. “Man stands in need of being enlightened by God’s revelation, not only about those things that exceed his understanding, but also ‘about those religious and moral truths which of themselves are not beyond the grasp of human reason, so that even in the present condition of the human race, they can be known by all men with ease, with firm certainty, and with no admixture of error’” (CCC no. 38).

Faith helps reason to fulfill reason’s own capacities. Through faith, reason is given access to sacred truths that reside beyond the native capacities of natural reason.

By natural reason man can know God with certainty, on the basis of his works. But there is another order of knowledge, which man cannot possibly arrive at by his own powers: the order of divine Revelation. Through an utterly free decision, God has revealed himself and given himself to man. This he does by revealing the mystery, his plan of loving goodness, formed from all eternity in Christ, for the benefit of all men. God has fully revealed this plan by sending us his beloved Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit. (<em>CCC</em> no. 50)

Although God “dwells in unapproachable light,” he “wants to communicate his own divine life to the men he freely created.” Thus, “by revealing himself God wishes to make them capable of responding to him, and of knowing him, and of loving him far beyond their own natural capacity” (CCC no. 52).

The light of faith enables human persons to know God at a higher register and in a more personal way. “One’s faith commits one more deeply than a simple belief. You can believe in a lot of different things; but, strictly speaking, you can have faith only in a person.... Faith in the full sense of the word can have only God as its object” (de Lubac, Splendor of the Church, 33). The light of faith enables human persons to know God in a way reflective of God’s own knowledge of himself. The “supernatural Revelation” accessible under the light of faith is a superior form of human knowledge (CCC no. 53). This superior knowledge about God engenders a type of theology that far exceeds—both in form and in content—the natural theology of human reason. Received under the light of faith, divine revelation engenders the science of sacred theology.

Summary: “Catholic Theology” is Sacred Theology

In 1990, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued an instruction titled Donum Veritatis (“On the Ecclesial Vocation of the Theologian”). The instruction explained that “theology has importance for the Church in every age so that it can respond to the plan of God ‘who desires all men to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth’ (1 Tim 2:4)” (Donum Veritatis no. 1). This explanation of theology’s importance fully coheres with the Catechism’s presentation of the whole of the Christian life (CCC no. 1).

God desires the salvation of all men. And human salvation is nothing other than union with God in truth and love. Therefore, Catholic theology is an ecclesial discipline, a science that unfolds within the Church of Jesus Christ. It is fully “catholic” and “theological.” It is catholic insofar as it participates in the intensive and the extensive universality of Christ’s Church. Catholic theology is a discipline inherently linked to the Incarnate Word, Jesus Christ. There is no part of Catholic theology that is disconnected from God’s revelation of himself in Jesus. Moreover, Catholic theology shares in the purpose of the Incarnation itself: to bring God’s salvation to all people in all times and in all places.

Catholic theology is also properly theological. It is discourse about God that touches on both the mystery of God’s own divine life and being (theologia), as well as on those things that God has done and continues to do in the order of divine providence (oikonomia). As discourse about God within the ecclesial community, Catholic theology is intimately connected to knowledge about God—both the knowledge that God has of himself, and the knowledge that human persons have about God.

Therefore, Catholic theology is preeminently sacred theology. It follows upon God’s “supernatural revelation.” Catholic theology proceeds from divine revelation under the light of faith. Nonetheless, Catholic theology does not suppress the natural light of reason. Indeed, it presupposes the light of reason. The natural capacity of human reason for the truth about God—even if indirectly through those things that God has made—is foundational for the human reception of divine revelation.

In sum, Catholic theology is an ecclesial discipline, informed by the light of faith, which utilizes the natural light of human reason. Catholic theology originates from God but resides in the rational capacities of the human person. Consequently, it considers both the supernatural transcendence of God as well as the salvific requirements of human nature.

The God of infinite mystery has created human persons in wisdom and love, and he has called them to saving union with himself. Catholic theology is an essential dimension of the human response to God’s supernatural wisdom and goodness.

II. The Light of Faith and Sacred Theology 

As sacred theology, Catholic theology proceeds under the light of faith. The Catechism explains that “faith is first of all a personal adherence of man to God. At the same time, and inseparably, it is a free assent to the whole truth that God has revealed” (CCC no. 150, emphasis in original). Faith is the virtue by which the human person, in this present life, believes all that God has revealed because God has revealed it. This is why faith is classified as a theological virtue. “What moves us to believe [in faith] is not the fact that revealed truths appear as true and intelligible in the light of our natural reason: we believe ‘because of the authority of God himself who reveals them, who can neither deceive nor be deceived’” (CCC no. 156). This motivation behind the assent of faith—this “formal object” of faith—accounts for the essential difference between theological faith and merely human belief. God’s authority is the foundation and the object of faith. The exclusive motivation that leads to theological faith is God himself: First Truth Revealing.

“Faith is first of all a personal adherence to God and assent to his truth.” Thus, “Christian faith differs from our faith in any human person. It is right and just to entrust oneself wholly to God and to believe absolutely what he says” (CCC no. 150). Because God is Truth itself, he cannot deceive. Whatever is received in faith is absolutely certain. Faith “is more certain than all human knowledge because it is founded on the very word of God who cannot lie.” Although “revealed truths can seem obscure to human reason and experience... ‘the certainty that the divine light gives is greater than that which the light of natural reason gives’” (CCC no. 157).

As noted above, the supernatural light of faith exceeds the natural capacities of the human person. Faith is not the product of human ingenuity or effort. “Faith is a grace.” It is “a gift of God, a supernatural virtue infused by him” (CCC no. 153). As one author has observed, “abstract reasons for believing in God have never been the source of any man’s faith” (Bouyer, Invisible Father, 3). In order to make an act of faith, the human person “must have the interior helps of the Holy Spirit, who moves the heart and converts it to God, who opens the eyes of the mind and ‘makes it easy for all to accept and believe the truth’” (CCC no. 153). Faith enables the Christian to see and know all things under a supernatural light.

The Deposit of Faith and the Articles of Faith

The catholicity of faith arises from the fact that “God ‘desires all men to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth’: that is, of Christ Jesus. Christ must be proclaimed to all nations and individuals, so that this revelation may reach the ends of the earth” (CCC no. 74). Jesus Christ himself is the fulness of divine revelation. To the apostles he entrusted his gospel message, “which had been promised beforehand by the prophets, and which he fulfilled in his own person and promulgated with his own lips” (CCC no. 75). And the apostles handed on the gospel entrusted to them orally and in writing to their successors, the bishops (CCC no. 76-77). “As a result the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted, ‘does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honored with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence’” (CCC no. 82).

The apostles, thus, “entrusted the ‘Sacred deposit’ of the faith (the depositum fidei), contained in Scripture and Tradition, to the whole of the Church” (CCC no. 84). Here again, we see how the Church serves as the context of theological faith. Because the Church is the “pillar and bulwark of the truth” (1 Tim 3:15), she “faithfully guards ‘the faith which was once for all delivered to the saints.’ She guards the memory of Christ’s words; it is she who from generation to generation hands on the apostles’ confession of faith.” With maternal solicitude, the Church “teaches us the language of faith in order to introduce us to the understanding and the life of faith” (CCC no. 171).

This reference to the “language of faith” is of utmost importance. The saving doctrine that Christ entrusted to the Church is for all people and for all times. Nonetheless, the language of faith has real content and is a very precise and determined language. The need for this precision arises from the profundity of the mysteries of faith and the language’s suitability for all people.

Words have real meaning. They communicate the truth. Words convey the meaning of nothing less than reality. Reality itself accounts for the power of words. Because reality exists, words have meaning. It is through the meaning of words that one can know and express the nature of reality. The words of faith communicate sacred truth. Therefore, the nature and content of the sacred truth about divine mysteries dictate the language of faith.

Because the mysteries of faith are both sublime and sure, the Church’s language of faith is specific and thus precisely defined. The God who is and who saves does not change within himself, nor does he renege on “his promise of mercy” towards us (Lk 1:55). The language of faith is inherently tied to the realities of faith.

Additionally, this specific and defined language of faith facilitates the promulgation of the mysteries of faith. In other words, the doctrine of the Church is not a “moving target.” It never undergoes an identity crisis. The Church does not redefine her doctrine, and so her lexicon perseveres throughout the ages. This continuity of sacred profession and expression enables people of all times, nations, and cultures to receive the unchanging faith. The language of faith never eludes human reach. No matter who a person is or what their personal history contains, it is always possible to access the saving mysteries communicated in the language of faith.

The language of the Church is the language of faith, and this language is one that anyone can learn anywhere and at any time. The Church guards her language because she reveres Jesus Christ and his sacred deposit of faith. The language of faith is dogmatically set without being lifelessly static. The language of the Church is firmly established because of the stability of Our Lord’s identity as Savior of the world.

“From the beginning, the apostolic Church expressed and handed on her faith in brief formulae to all.” Nonetheless, “the Church also wanted to gather the essential elements of its faith into organic and articulated summaries” (CCC no. 186). These “syntheses” of “symbols” or “professions of faith” are called creeds (from the Latin word, credo, “I believe”). The creeds contain the articles of faith.

The Catechism explains that “just as in our bodily members there are certain articulations which distinguish and separate them, so too in this profession of faith, the name articles has rightly and justly been given to the truths we must believe particularly and distinctly” (CCC no. 191, emphasis in original). The articles of faith, thus, are discrete truths of faith comprised by the sacred deposit of faith. “The faithful must believe the articles of the Creed ‘so that by believing they may obey God, by obeying may live well, by living well may purify their hearts, and with pure hearts may understand what they believe’” (CCC no. 2518).

The deposit of faith is a unified whole, and the articles of faith evince the unity and the integrity of this sacred deposit. Together, the individual articles communicate the divine revelation entrusted to the Church under the care of the apostles. Moreover, as the Catechism observes, these articles are ordered to the purifying transformation of the human heart and to the deepened understanding of the faith it receives.

“Faith Seeking Understanding”

Although faith is a supernatural virtue infused by God, it also results in an authentically human act. “Believing is possible only by grace and the interior helps of the Holy Spirit. But it is no less true that believing is an authentically human act.” Consequently, “trusting in God and cleaving to the truths he has revealed are contrary neither to human freedom nor to human reason” (CCC no. 154).

The powers of human knowing and loving are not suppressed by the influence of divine grace or of theological faith. Because of God’s immediate presence to all of created reality, his causal influence on created reality is in no way violent or disruptive. “When the love of our God acts in our behalf, it calls for our cooperation, that is, our faith” (Corbon, Wellspring of Worship, 90). As the first cause and the final end of all things, God works intimately within all that he has created. Divine providence extends to the most interior depths of all things. Thus, “in faith, the human intellect and will cooperate with divine grace: ‘Believing is an act of the intellect assenting to the divine truth by command of the will moved by God through grace’” (CCC no. 155).

Because the human person receives divine revelation, divine revelation is proportioned to human nature. Although faith transcends human reason, faith does not violate human reason. In fact, the Catechism explains that in order “that the submission of our faith might nevertheless be in accordance with reason, God willed that external proofs of his Revelation should be joined to the internal helps of the Holy Spirit” (CCC no. 156). These “external proofs” are not, strictly speaking, demonstrations of the supernatural truths revealed by divine revelation. Rather, they are motives of credibility (motiva credibilitatis): “most certain signs of divine Revelation, adapted to the intelligence of all... which show that the assent of faith is ‘by no means a blind impulse of the mind’” (CCC no. 156). Although faith exceeds human reason, faith is still eminently reasonable.

One of the most famous definitions of sacred theology is that given by St. Anselm of Canterbury (1033/4–1109): faith seeking understanding. Because faith is proportioned to human nature—and, subsequently, to human reason—faith is not inimical to the natural, human inclination to understand the truth. Indeed, “it is intrinsic to faith that a believer desires to know better the One in whom he has put his faith and to understand better what He has revealed.” Faith does not neutralize human reason, nor does it render human understanding inert. Rather, faith elicits a sanctified desire in the human person for “a more penetrating knowledge” and “a lively understanding of the contents of Revelation” (CCC no. 158).

This desire for a vital understanding of divine revelation arises from the real content of faith. The Catechism highlights the fact that faith is not confined to mere words or expressions. “We do not believe in formulas, but in those realities they express, which faith allows us to touch” (CCC no. 170). The theological virtue of faith enables the person of faith to have actual, living contact with divine things. “The believer’s act [of faith] does not terminate in the propositions, but in the realities [which they express]” (CCC no. 170). The language, terminology, and propositions of faith, thus, are instruments that enable the Christian assembly to “approach” divine realities and “to express the faith and to hand it on, to celebrate it in community, to assimilate and live on it more and more” (CCC no. 170).

As long as faith remains, so does the human desire to penetrate ever more profoundly the objects of faith. Under the influence of the Holy Spirit, “the understanding of both the realities and the words of the heritage of faith is able to grow in the life of the Church.” And it is here that the Catechism gestures towards the perennial relevance of theology: “it is in particular ‘theological research [which] deepens knowledge of revealed truth’” (CCC no. 94).

The desire for theological research is the connatural human response to the reception of faith. Faith is not the end of human inquiry and exploration. In the supernatural order, it is their beginning. The mysteries of faith invite rational examination precisely because they are fit to human persons as rational creatures. Thus, in a very real sense, theological inquiry is the sanctifying effect of faith in the human person. Faith leads the human person to sacred theology.

III. Sacred Theology: Deepening Human Knowledge of Revealed Truth

“Theology is structured as an understanding of faith in the light of a twofold methodological principle: the auditus fidei and the intellectus fidei. With the first, theology makes its own the content of Revelation as this has been gradually expounded in Sacred Tradition, Sacred Scripture and the Church’s living Magisterium. With the second, theology seeks to respond through speculative enquiry to the specific demands of disciplined thought” (John Paul II, Fides et ratio, no. 65). Thus, sacred theology is the sanctified human response to divine revelation received in faith. Specifically, sacred theology is the ongoing quest for a more profound understanding of what God has revealed “for us men and for our salvation.” Sacred theology works from the content of divine revelation, under the form of theological faith, and within the structure of human understanding. Each of these elements contribute to the nature of sacred theology.

Yves Congar explained that “the term ‘theology’ means a reasoned account about God.” Theology “may be defined as a body of knowledge which rationally interprets, elaborates and ordains the truths of Revelation” (Congar, History of Theology, 25). The essential function of sacred theology is to provide an accurate account of God’s divine revelation. The finality or purpose of this sacred discipline is conformity with the holy teaching of Our Lord. Therefore, sacred theology is the most intricate of all disciplines. The sublimity of divine revelation makes great demands upon the human intellect, which seeks to understand what has been revealed. No other body of knowledge excels the dignity of the supernatural truths received in faith. And no other work of acquired contemplation is as exacting as that of sacred theology.

Theological inquiry of this sort is, paradoxically, the simplest and the most complex of all intellectual activities. Sacred theology is simple insofar as its objective is simple: God himself. It is complex because the process of human knowledge is not simple. Indeed, human cognition is a process that comprises many parts and requires many steps. “The Catholic tradition affirms that, from the point of view of the divine reality believed, the truths of faith remain simple and one, but from the point of view of the believer’s act, the divine realities are given human shape in knowledge and affirmation. The propositions of faith adapt divine truth to the limitations of our intellects” (Cessario, Christian Faith, 75). Therefore, the contemplation of sacred theology is wondrously “stretched” between the two poles of simplicity and complexity.

The simplicity of God and the complexity of the human person both inform the work of theology. And faithful practitioners of sacred theology are never chagrinned before the simultaneous sublimity and contingency of their discipline. The understanding of faith requires this conjunction of sublimity and contingency.

Only in the beatific vision will the human intellect be able to contemplate God directly. Nonetheless, “faith makes us taste in advance the light of the beatific vision, the goal of our journey here below. Then we shall see God ‘face to face,’ ‘as he is.’ So faith is already the beginning of eternal life.” And because theology is a human response to faith, theology is effectively a systematic attempt to anticipate the glories of seeing God as he is. Hence, “when we contemplate the blessings of faith even now, as if gazing at a reflection in a mirror, it is as if we already possessed the wonderful things which our faith assures us we shall one day enjoy” (CCC no. 163).

Because of his infinite mercy and goodness, God, who knows himself perfectly, has freely chosen to reveal his knowledge of himself. This is divine revelation. The beatific vision is when rational creatures see God as he is in himself, face to face, in the heavenly homeland. Sacred theology is the activity of wayfarers here on earth who (1) have received God’s revelation in faith, (2) yearn for the beatific vision, and (3) refuse to wait until heaven before beginning to contemplate the divine mysteries.

Theologians are those who have resolved to begin the contemplation of divine truth here and now. Sacred theology, then, is a kind of sanctified impatience.

All of these elements help to explain why sacred theology is so intricate. All Christian believers receive divine revelation in faith. But those Christian believers who devote themselves to faith seeking understanding utilize all available resources in this ambitious task. They enlist all intellectual tools for the task of theological contemplation. Nothing is superfluous or capricious within the exercise of sacred theology. Because sacred theology proceeds under the light of faith, all aspects of this sacred discipline are precisely configured around God.

“The primary task of Christian theology is to clarify how the God we believe in is to be understood” (Sokolowski, God of Faith and Reason, 1). Because the understanding of faith is a task that stretches human cognition to its created limits, sacred theology is the most stringent of all disciplines and is the most precise of all sciences.

Sacred Theology as a Science

Sacred theology is a true science—indeed, a “sacred science” (CCC no. 906). Science (or scientia, in Latin) is a specific type of knowledge. It falls within the category of intellectual knowledge (as distinct from sense knowledge).

The scientific nature of sacred theology originates from the understanding-orientation of the human intellect as adhering to the articles of faith. As noted above, faith does not suppress reason’s inclination to understand. Rather, faith invites rational inquiry. Thus, theological science is the methodical and deliberate process by which the human intellect pursues the intelligibility of what is known by faith. This process conforms both to the nature and content of divine revelation as well as to the shape and limitations of human nature. In other words, theological science reflects the supernatural sublimity of faith with respect to the natural requirements of the human person.

There are two types of intellectual knowledge: mediate and immediate. Because scientific knowledge is the result of the discursive process of demonstration, sacred theology is a mediate intellectual knowledge: it operates through the medium of demonstration. In sum, scientia is mediate intellectual knowledge characterized by truth and certitude because science is acquired through the medium of previous knowledge of first principles or causes.

First principles are the absolute foundation of any science. They are the starting points—the “first truths”—of scientific reasoning. Indeed, a science without first principles is impossible. No science proves or demonstrates its proper first principles. Thus, sacred theology does not demonstrate its first principles, which are the articles of faith. These first principles are divinely revealed by God and are received by the theologian in faith. It is in light of the articles of faith that sacred theology discursively advances to truths virtually contained within the first principles. Through the articles of faith (“mediately”), the science of sacred theology is able to acquire further truths (i.e., conclusions) virtually contained within these first principles of faith.

Sacred theology is thus the science of faith. Faith provides the objectivity of this sacred science. The formal object of sacred theology is divine revelation. Knowledge as divinely revealed is the aspect under which all scientific considerations proceed in theological science. Moreover, this aspect unifies all considerations within sacred theology.

The subject of a science is that about which the scientist seeks to learn. The proper subject of theological science is divine being (ens divinum) as knowable through divine revelation. Consequently, God himself is the principal subject of sacred theology. God is the primary referent in all theological science.

Nonetheless, all things can be considered in the science of sacred theology, even if they are not God himself. These other things fall within the scientific domain of sacred theology in reference to God (sub ratione Dei) as originating from God or as ordered to God. This universal range of “secondary subjects” within sacred theology is unique among all of the sciences (e.g., natural philosophy, metaphysics, epistemology). “It is only because reason is illumined by faith, which itself is of God, that sacred theology can have such an extensive scope: all of being, created and uncreated, comes under its consideration” (Wallace, Role of Demonstration, 38).

Although sacred theology proceeds under the formal influence of divine light, it remains a science limited to the human manner of knowing. Human knowledge advances in a step-by-step, discursive, or demonstrative process; theological science reflects this human manner of knowing.

All authentic sciences (scientiae) enjoy certitude in their conclusions. Nevertheless, the conclusions of sacred theology enjoy the highest degree of certitude because the certitude of theological conclusions depends upon—and is “resolvable” back into—the certitude of the divinely revealed principles of faith. In other words, all valid conclusions drawn within sacred theology bear the characteristics of the principles from which these conclusions proceed. Because they originate from God, the articles of faith are absolutely certain, and conclusions drawn from the articles of faith participate in the certitude of these articles.

There is a true coherence between the certitude of the articles of faith and the certitude of theological conclusions. Yet there is still a difference between these two types of certitude. The certitude of the articles of faith is immediate certitude. In contrast, the certitude of theological conclusions is a mediate or scientific certitude that originates from the human intellect’s ability to see the connection between two truths and to draw out a new truth from them. Hence, although the certitude of theological science participates in the supernatural certitude of faith, they are still distinct kinds of certitude. The certitude of theological science depends on the discursive process of the theologian and is thus based upon human reason and not only upon the light of faith. The certitude of theological conclusions is thus derived from the light of human reason.

This distinction between the certitude of faith and the certitude of theological science does not mean that the conclusions of theological science are invalid or false. Rather, this distinction of certitude precisely maintains the distinction between the light of faith and the light of reason. Each light possesses its own respective kind of certitude.

Sacred Theology as a Wisdom

Sacred theology is truly scientific insofar as human intelligence can actually pursue a deepened understanding of divinely revealed truth. Divine revelation is not the material of opinion or conjecture. Because divine revelation originates from the very science of God (in Latin, the scientia Dei), it is truth of the utmost certitude and intelligibility. Moreover, sacred theology receives validation from the fact that the saints in heaven actually see God as he is in himself and participate in God’s divine science. Human contingency is not an absolute impediment to divine contemplation. Although the saints in heaven exist in a glorified state, they remain truly human—with all of the essential limitations and restrictions of human nature. Thus, the saints are living proof that human persons can share in the knowledge of God. Sacred theology as a science is the human response of those here on earth who contemplate the divine mysteries “in expectation of the blessed vision of God—the consummation of faith” (CCC no. 1274). The saints in heaven thus are living demonstrations that sacred theology is not a futile endeavor.

Lest one conclude, however, that sacred theology is exclusively characterized by the limitations of human creatureliness, it is important to remember that the saints also testify to another dimension of sacred theology: wisdom (in Latin, sapientia). Just as science emphasizes the fact that created rationality can plumb the depths of divine truth through inference, so wisdom emphasizes the fact that God has invited rational creatures to share in the highest of divine mysteries.

Divine revelation reflects the wisdom of God. “It pleased God, in his goodness and wisdom, to reveal himself and to make known the mystery of his will. His will was that men should have access to the Father, through Christ, the Word made flesh, in the Holy Spirit, and thus become sharers in the divine nature” (CCC no. 51). The saints show that, because of God’s largesse, the heights of divinity are not inaccessible to human persons. “Because of his transcendence, God cannot be seen as he is, unless he himself opens up his mystery to man’s immediate contemplation and gives him the capacity for it. The Church calls this contemplation of God in his heavenly glory ‘the beatific vision’” (CCC no. 1028).

The saints in heaven contemplate God and all things in relation to God. They see God’s being and, consequently, his absolute priority above all beings. Thus, the heavenly activity of the saints signals to Christian believers that the sublimity of God is the ultimate starting point for all contemplation. Admittedly, the saints in glory know the heights of divinity with an intimacy that far exceeds even the most faith-filled of Christians. Nonetheless, the intimate and immediate contemplation of the saints manifests how all friends of God should live and contemplate: in reference to the highest things and, ultimately, to God, the absolutely highest being.

Sacred theology is shaped by the heights of wisdom. Because theological science receives its first principles from God, theological science is radically committed to the sublimity and the priority of its first principles. Subsequently, sacred theology is not only inclined towards conclusions drawn from the first principles of faith. Rather, sacred theology is supremely structured around the sublime priority of its first principles precisely as principles. Because the work of sacred theology always implies an ever-deepening appreciation of its divinely revealed first principles, sacred theology is, radically, a wisdom.

Sacred theology thus seeks to penetrate into the formality and meaning of its first principles. This penetrative task implies the ordering of clarifications about the articles of faith found in Scripture, Tradition, and the teaching of the Magisterium. The wise order that sacred theology seeks in this context arises from its task of attaining greater, contemplative precision about what has been divinely revealed.

The task of wisdom also resides in the recognition of the analogy of faith. “By ‘analogy of faith’ we mean the coherence of the truths of faith among themselves and within the whole plan of revelation” (CCC no. 114). The Incarnation of the Eternal Word and the Real Presence of Jesus in the Eucharist are both mysteries of faith. They are both divinely revealed articles of faith. As a science, sacred theology can identify a myriad of truths virtually contained in these sacred mysteries. As a wisdom, however, sacred theology also identifies the profound resonance between these sacred mysteries. Indeed, sapientially, sacred theology recognizes that greater clarity about one mystery of faith clarifies another mystery. For example, greater understanding of the Incarnation results in a deeper comprehension of the Blessed Sacrament (and vice versa).

In the final analysis, God is the highest mystery of faith. Thus, the highest expression of wisdom is, thus, contemplating (“resolving”) all principles in reference to God. The sapiential centrality of God is the consummate truth of all of reality. “God’s truth is his wisdom, which commands the whole created order and governs the world. God, who alone made heaven and earth, can alone impart true knowledge of every created thing in relation to himself” (CCC no. 216). Because the God of wisdom has revealed his wisdom to his creatures, his creatures can participate in his wisdom by likewise considering all things in relation to God.

“Because God creates through wisdom, his creation is ordered” (CCC no. 299). Indeed, his creation is ordered to him. Thus, the wonders of God and the universe that God has created prompt “us to give him thanks for all his works and for the understanding and wisdom he gives to scholars and researchers. With Solomon they can say: ‘It is he who gave me unerring knowledge of what exists, to know the structure of the world and the activity of the elements... for wisdom, the fashioner of all things, taught me’” (CCC no. 283).

Sacred theology originates from the wisdom of God, and as a wisdom, sacred theology never loses its preoccupation with the articles of faith. In wisdom God created. In wisdom God reveals. And because of wisdom, sacred theology never ceases to contemplate all that God created in reference to divine revelation.

The Significance of Sacred Theology's Scientific and Sapiential Nature

Why is the scientific and sapiential nature of sacred theology important? Does it really matter if sacred theology is a science and a wisdom? The answer is a profound, “yes.”

We recall that it is the nature of scientific theology to start from principles and move to conclusions. We also recall that it belongs to the essence of wisdom to render judgment about things in relation to the highest principles, and even judgment about other principles. Simply stated, science is ordered to conclusions and wisdom is configured around principles. Both science and wisdom presuppose and enter into the dynamics of human knowledge. Because human knowledge is about the conformity of human cognition to known objects, science and wisdom are both shaped by the nature of human cognition and of known reality.

Human knowledge presupposes and depends upon the intelligibility of reality. Order shapes and informs real things. Consequently, real things are knowable. Were reality unintelligible, neither science nor wisdom would be possible. Science and wisdom both advance through intelligibility in order to understand implications that follow from the form of things, as well as the correlation that follows from these forms. Consequently, if reality does not proceed from the knowledge of God, there is no science or wisdom.

The “science of God and of the saints” (in Latin, scientia Dei et beatorum) is the foundation for sacred theology here on earth. Sacred theology is different from the knowledge of God that the blessed enjoy in heaven because the knowledge of God that we have on earth is not immediate. God knows himself immediately. The saints see God “face to face” (1 Cor 13:12). In contrast to the beatific knowledge of the saints, our knowledge of God adheres to the process by which human understanding in this life progresses and advances. Earthly contemplation of God is not immediate, but rather advances through discursive steps.

Science and wisdom highlight the real potential of human nature. Human nature is capable of being sanctified, and human cognition is capable of being elevated to the supernatural order. Human knowledge can truly know a revealed object that exceeds the native limits of human nature. However, human cognition still remains human even after it is so elevated. This point is supremely important. Were human intelligence unable to be elevated to the order of grace, we would be unable to order all of our life, all of our actions, and indeed the whole of our being towards God as our supernatural end. This is because the most profound and authentic human actions follow from knowledge. Just as grace heals, perfects, elevates, and transforms human nature, so divine revelation heals, perfects, elevates, and transforms human understanding.

One of the unique features of human cognition is its ability to consider and reflect upon its own processes. This is one of the great dignities of human intelligence. Thus, human understandingas healed, perfected, elevated, and transformed—is able to recognize itself as healed, perfected, elevated, and transformed. Because it can consider its own processes, human cognition can recognize how human understanding works—under both the light of reason and the light of faith. Consequently, human cognition can recognize itself in both the natural and the supernatural orders. As the human intellect is perfected and fulfilled through knowledge of natural reality, so the human intellect is super-perfected and supernaturally fulfilled through knowledge of the divine mysteries. Sacred theology as science and as wisdom formally appreciates the dynamics of human knowledge in relation to the objects known, whether those objects be natural or supernatural.

This dynamic between divine reality and human understanding lies at the heart of sacred theology. As we have seen, sacred theology is not about divine reality divorced from human understanding. Nor, on the other hand, is sacred theology a science of human cognition divorced from the sacred mysteries. The shape of divine reality and the shape of human cognition both inform the nature and practice of sacred theology, rendering it truly a science and a wisdom.

Science and wisdom describe how faith elevates reason and how grace elevates nature, indeed, how divine objects transform human understanding. The ability of human cognition to reflect upon itself—even when informed by grace—enables us to recognize that human cognition remains what it is even when elevated to the supernatural order. Sacred theology as science and as wisdom thus marks and serves as a record of the sanctification of human intelligence.

The scientific and sapiential nature of sacred theology is something akin to a disciplinary consolation. Theological science and wisdom make evident that there is consonance between the between the human and the divine—between the natural order of being and the supernatural order of being. Divine revelation does not cancel or frustrate human cognition. Science and wisdom confirm that the human is truly able to be elevated to the divine.

The recognition of theological science and theological wisdom also indicates how this project—the goal of faith seeking understanding—can be further advanced. In other words, an appreciation of science and wisdom preserves sacred theology from forgetting its disciplinary objective (God) and its guiding light (faith).

In sum, the scientific and sapiential nature of sacred theology is both a consolation and a confirmation of the healing and transformative power of divine revelation. Theology’s scientific nature shows how sacred theology proceeds in an eminently human manner, according to an objectively divine formality—never forfeiting its orientation to the truth. Theology’s sapiential nature guides the sacred discipline in reference to its highest principles (and even in reference to the first principles of other disciplines).

IV. Specifics in Sacred Theology

Because sacred theology is defined as “faith seeking understanding,” both the character of faith and the structure of understanding inform theological contemplation. As noted above, sacred theology straddles the simplicity of God and the unity of divine revelation, on the one hand, and the complexity of human cognition on the other. This dual simplicity-complexity helps to explain why there are different kinds of Catholic theology. Different “schools” of Christian thought punctuate the history of theology. There is one Christian faith, yet there can be different Christian theologies.

Although these different theologies have noteworthy and significant doctrinal divergences, they share a fundamental unity. All authentic expressions of Christian theology share the faith in common. They all receive and adhere to divine revelation. No Catholic theologian or theological school denies any of the articles of faith. Indeed, all of them recognize that divine revelation is the necessary starting point for their theological reflection.

The acceptance of divine revelation is absolutely necessary for Catholic theology. Without this formal adherence to divine revelation, Catholic theology would no longer be “Catholic.” Catholic theologies are specifically Catholic because of their faithful commitment to divine revelation, which includes as a necessary condition its proposal by the Church.

Therefore, the divergences that distinguish different schools or expressions of Catholic theology do not reside in the order of faith. Rather, these differences emerge from the order of reason and understanding. All Catholic theologians sincerely seek to understand the faith. But not all Catholic theologians understand the faith in the same way. There are different interpretations and conclusions about what God has divinely revealed.

What accounts for these differences in understanding? Ultimately, different philosophical convictions account for the divergences between Catholic theologians and between their respective theological schools. Such philosophical convictions are presuppositions about being and reality that theologians unavoidably bring to their work. How one conceives of being—one of the great philosophical topics—will necessarily shape how one understands divine revelation. Why? Divine revelation is replete with statements about divine and divinized being. In other words, how one conceives of natural being will necessarily affect how one understands divine being. Additionally, how one conceives of human nature will affect how one understands human nature as transformed by grace. “It is impossible to carry through the project of systematic theology without explicit commitment to particular philosophical options” (Dulles, Craft of Theology, 119).

Because theology is faith seeking understanding, the content of philosophical understanding will shape the theological understanding of faith. As Joseph Ratzinger observes: “theological speculation is linked to philosophical inquiry as its basic methodology.” Indeed, “if theology has to do primarily with God, if its ultimate and proper theme is not salvation history or Church or community but simply God, then it must think in philosophical terms” (Ratzinger, Principles of Catholic Theology, 316). Ratzinger continues:

On the other hand, it cannot be denied that philosophy precedes theology and, even after revelation has taken place, is never subsumed by theology but continues to be an independent path of the human spirit, in such a way, however, that philosophical speculation can enter into theological speculation without thereby being destroyed as philosophy. (Ratzinger, <em>Principles of Catholic Theology</em>, 316)

Philosophical presuppositions are directly relevant to theological conclusions about divine revelation, even though philosophical presuppositions remain properly philosophical and presuppositions. Theology and philosophy are two distinct disciplines. Theology is specified by supernatural first principles, and philosophy is specified by natural first principles.

Of course, “the Church has no philosophy of her own nor does she canonize any one particular philosophy in preference to others” (John Paul II, Fides et ratio, no. 49). The Church does not prescribe or proscribe any specific philosophies as philosophies. Philosophy arises from the natural human inclination to know the truth about reality under the light of natural reason. The Church has been entrusted with the deposit of faith. She does not exercise governance over the natural reasoning of philosophers, precisely as philosophers. Nonetheless, the Church recognizes that “the study of philosophy is fundamental and indispensable to the structure of theological studies” (John Paul II, Fides et ratio, no. 62). Thus, John Paul II explains:

It is the task of the Magisterium in the first place to indicate which philosophical presuppositions and conclusions are incompatible with revealed truth, thus articulating the demands which faith’s point of view makes of philosophy. Moreover, as philosophical learning has developed, different schools of thought have emerged. This pluralism also imposes upon the Magisterium the responsibility of expressing a judgement as to whether or not the basic tenets of these different schools are compatible with the demands of the word of God and theological enquiry. (John Paul II, <em>Fides et ratio</em>, no. 50)

Although direct governance over philosophical speculation does not fall to the Church, she does recognize when specific philosophical principles and particular conclusions are inimical to divine revelation. The Church’s role as guardian of divine revelation enables her to render judgments about philosophy.

For example, the Church does not regulate whether theologians must maintain the real distinction between philosophical principles like essence and existence or potency and act. Theologians can adhere to different conceptions of real being. But the Church does recognize that any philosophical systems that formally deny the existence of being or truth are fundamentally irreconcilable with the Christian faith. Consequently, she can legitimately object to philosophical principles from the vantage point of divine revelation—the light of faith. Some philosophical positions cannot be reconciled with the truths of faith. Thus, “for purposes of theological reflection, not all philosophical systems are equally valid” (Dulles, Craft of Theology, 132).

In sum, the Church does not directly resolve properly philosophical questions or make determinations about formally philosophical issues. Yet she can address philosophical issues indirectly—insofar as philosophical matters are relevant to matters of faith. Because of the Church’s jurisdiction in matters of faith, then, she is interested in the domain of reason. For example, the nature of the rational soul falls within the domain of philosophical inquiry. Consequently, the Church does not mandate that Christians endorse a specific philosophical account of the soul (e.g., an Aristotelian or a Platonic conception of the soul). Nonetheless, were a philosophy to argue that the soul is not immortal, such a philosophical position would be clearly false because it is irreconcilable with the faith.

The Church, thus, does not discriminate against different philosophies precisely as philosophies. Her concern is only the compatibility of different philosophical schools “with the demands of the word of God and theological enquiry” (John Paul II, Fides et ratio, no. 50). This very specific type of ecclesial concern, however, does not mean that all philosophies are equally correct or that there is no such thing as philosophical truth. Philosophical claims that are mutually contradictory cannot both be true (e.g., form and matter are either really distinct or they are not really distinct). It is possible to know certain truths by the light of natural reason. And precisely because all truth is ultimately God’s truth, the Church has consistently encouraged philosophers in their ongoing search for naturally knowable truth.

There have been many influential Catholic theologians from different philosophical convictions (e.g., Augustine, Maximus, Bonaventure, Scotus, Molina, Suarez). The Church has perennially recognized Thomas Aquinas as the progenitor of a uniquely effective intellectual tradition (see Leo XIII, Aeterni Patris). Indeed, even in the twentieth century, theologians have observed that Vatican II “recommend[ed] that theology be based on the perennially valid philosophical heritage that comes down through Thomas Aquinas.” Obviously, “this does not mean a rigid or servile adherence to scholasticism, but it does involve a serene confidence that the basic principles used for theological reasoning over the centuries have not lost their validity” (Dulles, Craft of Theology, 127).

Of course, Thomism is not the only valid intellectual tradition. Again, the intellectual traditions that came from Augustine, Scotus, and Molina—to name only a few—have been formidable and significant in the history of the Church. Nonetheless, “the Church has been justified in consistently proposing Saint Thomas as a master of thought and a model of the right way to do theology” (John Paul II, Fides et ratio, no. 43).

Theological Subdisciplines

“Sound theologies may take their departure from different philosophical perspectives but they must in the end converge toward a harmonious articulation of the meaning of revelation” (Dulles, Craft of Theology, 132). Catholic theologies can diverge in doctrinal positions, but they all share the same fundamental formality and orientation: to articulate the meaning of divine revelation. This goal unifies the practice of sacred theology.

Within this unified goal, there can be different theological specializations. These specializations are often called different “kinds” of Catholic theology. These differences, however, are accidental rather than substantial in nature. They are differences in emphasis (or, perhaps, method) rather than differences in disciplinary form. Theological sub-disciplines all fall under the unifying principles of this sacred science and wisdom.

The Catechism of the Catholic Church explains that “the Christian faith is not a ‘religion of the book.’ Christianity is the religion of the ‘Word’ of God, a word which is ‘not a written and mute word, but the Word which is incarnate and living’” (CCC no. 108). Therefore, Catholic theology is not exclusively biblical exegesis. Sacred Scripture is a privileged source of divine revelation, but it is not the exclusive channel of God’s holy teaching. “As authoritative loci, Scripture and Tradition together constitute a created norm whereby the Church discerns what God has revealed. In the final analysis, of course, God alone is the intrinsic motive or formal object of faith. Scripture and Tradition are the channel through which God’s authority manifests itself” (Dulles, Assurance of Things, 189). Scripture and Tradition are inseparable. “‘Sacred Scripture is the speech of God as it is put down in writing under the breath of the Holy Spirit.’ ‘And [Holy] Tradition transmits in its entirety the Word of God which has been entrusted to the apostles by Christ the Lord and the Holy Spirit’” (CCC no. 81). The Catechism continues: “As a result the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted, ‘does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honored with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence’” (CCC no. 82).

Following the Church’s example, Catholic theology relies upon both Scripture and Tradition because the deposit of faith is contained in both (CCC no. 84). The Second Vatican Council explains how Scripture and Tradition inform the work of sacred theology:

Sacred theology rests on the written word of God, together with sacred tradition, as its primary and perpetual foundation. By scrutinizing in the light of faith all truth stored up in the mystery of Christ, theology is most powerfully strengthened and constantly rejuvenated by that word. For the Sacred Scriptures contain the word of God and since they are inspired, really are the word of God; and so the study of the sacred page is, as it were, the soul of sacred theology. (<em>Dei Verbum</em>, no. 24)

Throughout history, thus, theologians have devoted particular attention to the study of the sacred page and to the theological sources of the Church’s tradition. “This is ‘positive theology,’ in the sense that it seeks to locate those truths ‘posited’ in revelation and formulated by the Church.... This is theology as gathering evidence for determining what really has been revealed” (Mansini, Fundamental Theology, 262). Thus, positive theology concerns the study of the Bible, Church dogmas, and the Church Fathers. Biblical scholarship, the history of dogma, and Patristics fall under the domain of positive theology.

Relevant to positive theology are the ten theological “places” or authoritative sources (loci theologici) identified by Melchior Cano (1509–1560): (1) The authority of Sacred Scripture, (2) the authority of the traditions of Christ and of the Apostles, (3) the authority of the Church, (4) the authority of the Councils, (5) the authority of the Roman Church, (6) the authority of the ancient Fathers, (7) the authority of scholastic theologians, (8) natural reason, (9) the authority of philosophers, and (10) the authority of human history. “These are the forces which the theologian can utilize in forming conclusions which are seen as perfectly certain in the light of virtual or mediate revelation” (Fenton, What is Sacred Theology?, 91–92). Because theological science uniquely relies upon authority for its argumentation and analysis, each of these ten loci are arranged into different degrees and types of authority that shape theological discourse. Moreover, positive theology seeks to identify in a systematic way the criteria by which the data belonging to each of these particular sources can be established and interpreted.

“The concern of fundamental theology” is “to justify and expound the relationship between faith and philosophical thought” (John Paul II, Fides et ratio, no. 67). Like positive theology, fundamental theology considers divine revelation. The difference between the two disciplines is that positive theology considers divine revelation in its material expressions while fundamental theology considers divine revelation in its formal elements. Studying “revelation and its credibility, as well as the corresponding act of faith,” fundamental theology strives to “demonstrate the profound compatibility that exists between faith and its need to find expression by way of human reason” (John Paul II, Fides et ratio, no. 67).

Dogmatic theology works “to articulate the universal meaning of the mystery of the One and Triune God and of the economy of salvation, both as a narrative and, above all, in the form of argument” (John Paul II, Fides et ratio, no. 66). Dogmatic theology (sometimes referred to as “systematic” theology) pursues the order between and the interconnectedness of revealed truths. The “integral parts” of dogmatic theology would include topics like the Trinity, the Person of Jesus Christ, the sacraments, and matters related to theological anthropology (Mansini, Fundamental Theology, 262).

Moral theology is a science that examines the human journey to God. It is “a reflection concerned with ‘morality,’ with the good and the evil of human acts and of the person who performs them.... But it is also ‘theology,’ inasmuch as it acknowledges that the origin and end of moral action are found in the one who alone is good’ and who, by giving himself to man in Christ, offers him the happiness of divine life” (Fides et ratio, no. 68). Topics considered within moral theology include supernatural beatitude, human action, virtue, vice, sin, law, and grace.

One can also situate ascetical and mystical theology within moral theology. Ascetical theology concerns especially the practice of the virtues and the renunciation of vices and imperfections. Mystical theology generally treats infused (rather than acquired) contemplation of the mysteries of faith and extraordinary graces (e.g., visions and private revelations). Like moral theology, ascetical and mystical theology take account of the universal principles of the Christian life (e.g., grace, infused virtue, the gifts of the Holy Spirit). However, ascetical and mystical theology also take into account the fact that the Holy Spirit can communicate extraordinary graces to certain souls that do not conform to ordinary Christian experience (see the lives and writings of St. Catherine of Siena, St. Theresa of Avila, and St. John of the Cross).

Additionally, John Paul II explains that pastoral theology (or “practical theology”) is a “true and genuine theological discipline.” Specifically, “it is a scientific reflection on the Church as she is built up daily, by the power of the Spirit, in history; on the Church as the ‘universal sacrament of salvation,’ as a living sign and instrument of the salvation wrought by Christ through the word, the sacraments and the service of charity” (John Paul II, Pastores dabo vobis, no. 57). John Paul II emphasizes the fact that “pastoral theology is not just an art. Nor is it a set of exhortations, experiences and methods.” As authentic theological science, “it receives from the faith the principles and criteria for the pastoral action of the Church in history.” Consequently, “the study of pastoral theology should throw light upon its practical application” (John Paul II, Pastores dabo vobis, no. 57). The implications of divine revelation, for the Church and for Christian life, are of central focus in pastoral theology.

V. The Implications of Sacred Theology

God speaks from his essential unity about his unified self. God cannot contradict himself. Divine revelation reflects the divine unity. What is revealed by God is essentially consistent. Consequently, the doctrines explored in sacred theology enjoy a mutually referential coherence. Concretely expressed, not a single article of faith can be negated without offense to divine revelation as a whole.

Theological contemplation recognizes and respects the integrity of divine revelation. For example, who God is in himself has profound implications for the Incarnation—the Eternal Word made flesh. And the Incarnation directly informs the sacramental practice of the Catholic Church. Additionally, the sacramental life of the Church orients the moral life of the human person. And the moral life is ultimately ordered to salvation—to union with God. How one understands one Christian doctrine has profound implications upon how one understands other Christian doctrines.

Sacred theology, as a science and as a wisdom, is not disconnected from real life. As noted above, the opening paragraph of the Catechism of the Catholic Church beautifully highlights the profound integration of Christian doctrine and the Christian life. Later on, the Catechism explicitly invokes the importance of theologians in the Church’s practical instruction: “In the work of teaching and applying Christian morality, the Church needs the dedication of pastors, the knowledge of theologians, and the contribution of all Christians and men of good will” (CCC no. 2038).

Christian living is not an isolated activity. All people are invited to become disciples of Christ and to follow in the footsteps of the Savior. Nonetheless, no one can be a disciple of the Lord without supernatural assistance and wise spiritual counsel. Sacred theology enables believers to understand how the Church provides both of these.

Sacramental Implications

“The seven sacraments are the signs and instruments by which the Holy Spirit spreads the grace of Christ the head throughout the Church which is his Body” (CCC no. 774). More than mere symbols of faith, the sacraments truly sanctify the human person. They cause real change in their recipients. Through the celebration of the sacraments, human persons really meet God, and God really changes human persons (Feingold, Touched by Christ; O’Neill, Meeting Christ). Because the subject of theology is Godand all things in relation to God—the sacraments have a central place in this sacred science (see Cessario, Seven Sacraments, 7–15).

“Celebrated worthily in faith, the sacraments confer the grace that they signify. They are efficacious because in them Christ himself is at work” (CCC no. 1127, emphasis in original). The chief effect of the sacraments is grace (Nutt, General Principles, 139–150), and both grace and the sacraments presuppose a human recipient. Grace does not float around the aeviternal atmosphere. Grace is always ordered to a human recipient. Likewise, sacraments were instituted and are celebrated for the salvation of souls. Thus, grace and the sacraments revolve around the nature of the human person and the nature of God. Indeed, grace enables the human person to exist and to live in a way proportioned to divinity. Through grace, human persons really participate in divine life. “Grace is a participation in the life of God. It introduces us into the intimacy of Trinitarian life” (CCC no. 1997, emphasis in original).

A sound and faithful approach to sacred theology will affect how one understands God’s role in shaping the Christian believer. Theological misconceptions about God, about the human person, and about the human person in relation to God will result in an inaccurate understanding—and an underappreciation—of the sacraments. Only sound theology can explain why the sacraments are necessary for human salvation. Additionally, only sound theology will enable Christians to understand how the sacraments work. Finally, sound theology alone can account for what the seven sacraments do in the human person.

Because sacred theology explores the intelligibility of divine revelation, the theologian is able to appreciate the necessity of the seven sacraments. Jesus Christ instituted the sacraments for a reason: human salvation. And human salvation is nothing short of the human person’s real union with God in beatific fellowship. Therefore, sacramental theology depends upon what has been revealed concerning God’s nature, human nature, and Jesus Christ, the Incarnate Word, who assumed a human nature “for us men and for our salvation.” An inaccurate understanding of God, human nature, and Jesus Christ facilitates inaccurate conceptions about the origin of the sacraments. Under the influence of these inaccurate understandings of the economy of salvation, the sacraments could be erroneously regarded as capriciously instituted. A correct understanding of divine revelation, however, will reveal how profoundly suited the sacraments are for the salvific needs of the human person.

The mechanics of the sacraments also fall within the consideration of sacred theology. Causality is a profoundly important concept for the sacraments. Indeed, the very fact that the sacraments require sensible and material elements—elements from the created order of things, like water and wine—invites theological reflection. An understanding of divine revelation about the sacraments enables one to appreciate how natural and ordinary elements can become sacred instruments that truly cause grace in the worthy recipients of the sacraments. A theological appreciation of creation’s relation to God—and of God’s authority and power over all creation—is indispensable for understanding sacramental causality.

Finally, sound theology enables one to understand the specific effects of each of the seven sacraments. The nature of grace and sacramental character are theological topics that have profound sacramental implications. For example, the fact that sacramental character is a permanent change in the soul, and the fact that only three of the sacraments confer a sacramental character (i.e., Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders), help believers to understand why some of the sacraments can only be received once while other sacraments are to be received many times. Moreover, sacramental character explains why there is an order among the sacraments—e.g., one cannot receive the sacrament of Confirmation before receiving the sacrament of Baptism.

Theology thus enables Christian believers to understand the necessity and significance of the sacraments in the Christian life. A profound appreciation for the sacraments necessarily depends upon sound theological understanding.

Pastoral and Spiritual Implications

Sacred theology seeks to understand how God works within the native capacities of human persons. God does not destroy our natural potencies. Human nature remains truly human even when elevated to the order and activity of grace. Consequently, Catholic theology recognizes the fact that God does not overpower human persons or their native capacities. “God’s free initiative demands man’s free response, for God has created man in his image by conferring on him, along with freedom, the power to know him and love him.” Because the contingencies of human nature render human love inherently free, “the soul only enters freely into the communion of love.” Hence, “God immediately touches and directly moves the heart of man” (CCC no. 2002).

The human person, therefore, really participates in the reality of God’s knowledge and love. “Man’s vocation is to make God manifest by acting in conformity with his creation ‘in the image and likeness of God’” (CCC no. 2085). And theological understanding recognizes that the moral and spiritual life are not reducible to the observance of arbitrary laws and customs. “The grace of Christ is the gratuitous gift that God makes to us of his own life, infused by the Holy Spirit into our soul to heal it of sin and to sanctify it” (CCC no. 1999). Christian morality is not oppressive. Rather, it is a transformative invitation to know, to love, and to desire in a manner conformed to God’s knowledge and love. Divine grace and Christian virtue liberate the human person.

Sound theology, thus, is of indispensable value for those who provide pastoral counsel about living the Christian life. It is impossible to outline the liberating reality of the Christian life or to implement authentic pastoral counsel without an adequate understanding of who God is and how he perfects the human person. In other words, practical implications follow from speculative understanding.

Speculative understanding is not hypothetical or disconnected from the way things are. Rather, it is a profound attention to the dynamics of reality. Knowledge of the truth for the sake of truth is the essence of speculative knowledge, and speculative knowledge is the foundation for any practical knowledge. Practical knowledge presupposes speculative knowledge but adds a further dimension: operation. The end of speculative knowledge is knowing the truth. The end of practical knowledge is truth as applied to action.

Thus, knowledge about God and the human person is intrinsically relevant to the dynamics of the spiritual life and pastoral ministry. Effective ministry necessarily presupposes accurate theological understanding. Ministry cannot be divorced from the truth about God or the human person because the human person’s union with God is precisely the goal of pastoral ministry. Theological precision and clarity, therefore, always have practical implications.

Additionally, pastoral counsel rests on God’s perfect immutability. His goodness, His truth, His wisdom, and His love never cease. Nonetheless, human persons are subject to change. Therefore, sound Catholic theology affords the Church’s pastors profound ministerial hope. In this life, there is no sin or disorder that disqualifies anyone from friendship with God. Through the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church, God Himself has provided the means through which human persons can undergo transformation in God’s mercy and love. This transformation does not deny the fact that human persons can live disordered lives—lives not oriented to beatific union with God. And yet God’s essential truth and goodness are more real than human disorder and brokenness. Sound theology enables ministers to remember that human persons can always come to know the real and true God in a way that truly saves.

Erroneous or insufficient theological understanding inhibits pastoral ministry. In the absence of sound theology, pastoral efforts can be conceived of in either rationalistic or fideistic ways. Both of these conceptions are inimical to holistic pastoral ministry because they either deny God’s supernatural role in human salvation (i.e., rationalism), or they downplay the importance of the human person as a real recipient of God’s grace (i.e., fideism).

Sound theology enables the pastor to articulate profound truths to those whom he ministers. This is why seminary formation emphasizes theological instruction. No one can teach about the Christian life without an understanding of what exactly the Christian life means.

VI. Popes Francis, Benedict XVI, and John Paul II on Theology

On the one hand, a respectful study of the genuine scientific quality of the individual disciplines of theology will help provide a more complete and deeper training of the pastor of souls as a teacher of faith; and, on the other hand, an appropriate awareness that there is a pastoral goal in view will help the serious and scientific study of theology be more formative for future priests. (John Paul II, <em>Pastores dabo vobis</em>, no. 55)

The three most recent popes have all spoken, in various contexts, about the nature and importance of theology within the Catholic Church. There is a fundamental continuity in their respective presentations of Catholic theology.

St. John Paul II was a brilliant philosopher specializing in the dynamics of the human person. Benedict XVI was one of the most significant theologians of the twentieth century and did much to clarify and continue the renewal initiated by the Second Vatican Council. Pope Francis’s papacy is profoundly characterized by the pastoral solicitude of a shepherd most devoted to his flock. God has blessed his Church with vivid examples of philosophical inquiry, theological contemplation, and pastoral zeal—all at the service of the People of God.

The complementarity of these three popes extends even to their teachings about the nature of sacred theology. Indeed, their descriptions about theology’s nature and importance provide a cohesive account of this sacred discipline, an account that remains perennially relevant for theologians.

Pope Francis on Theology and the Desire of Faith

In his 2013 papal encyclical, Lumen fidei, Pope Francis provided an overview of the relationship between faith and theology: “Since faith is a light, it draws us to itself, inviting us to explore ever more fully the horizon which it illumines, all the better to know the object of our love” (Francis, Lumen fidei, no. 36). The desire of love lies at the center of the Holy Father’s presentation of sacred theology. He reminds the world that “Christian theology is born of this desire.” Thus, the theology of the Christian Church is a discipline that arises from the profound human longing to know God, the object of our love.

God, the human person, and the human person’s orientation to God in faith thus serve as the foundation for theology. Theology is the properly human desire to know ever more fully the God whom we love and who first loved us and who has revealed his love to us.

Of course, the supreme manifestation of God’s love for humanity is Jesus Christ, the Incarnate Word. Our Incarnate Lord himself accounts for the existence of theology as well as for theology’s sublime task. “Theology is impossible without faith; it is part of the very process of faith, which seeks an ever deeper understanding of God’s self-disclosure culminating in Christ” (Francis, Lumen fidei, no. 36). Through the Incarnation of the Eternal Word, God has shown us that “he is a subject who makes himself known and perceived in an interpersonal relationship.” Consequently, “right faith orients reason to open itself to the light which comes from God, so that reason, guided by love of the truth, can come to a deeper knowledge of God” (Francis, Lumen fidei, no. 36).

Sacred theology, thus, is “a science of faith”—“a participation in God’s own knowledge of himself.” The scientific character of sacred theology is anything but insipid or impersonal. Theology “is not just our discourse about God, but first and foremost the acceptance and the pursuit of a deeper understanding of the word which God speaks to us, the word which God speaks about himself, for he is an eternal dialogue of communion, and he allows us to enter into this dialogue” (Francis, Lumen fidei, no. 36).

Through the striking image of “touch,” Pope Francis accentuates the essentially humble character of sacred theology. Sacred theology is a science that originates from a source beyond the plane of natural human discovery. Moreover, it is a science oriented to nothing less than the God who lies beyond human comprehension. “Theology thus demands the humility to be ‘touched’ by God, admitting its own limitations before the mystery, while striving to investigate, with the discipline proper to reason, the inexhaustible riches of this mystery” (Francis, Lumen fidei, no. 36).

Consequently, theology is an ecclesial science. God has revealed himself through the Incarnation of the Eternal Word, and Jesus Christ has entrusted his holy teaching to the Catholic Church. Therefore “theology also shares in the ecclesial form of faith” (Francis, Lumen fidei, no. 36). A Church-less sacred theology is inconceivable. The Catholic Church is the ever-fertile soil in which sacred theology continues to grow and thrive. And all who reside within the Church—“ordinary believers” as well as the “magisterium of the Pope and the bishops”—are participants in the purpose and work of sacred theology.

Through these words, Pope Francis reaffirms the consistent convictions of his predecessor, Pope Benedict XVI (Joseph Ratzinger). Ratzinger was one of the most influential theologians of the twentieth century. And his reflections on the nature of sacred theology remain relevant in the contemporary moment.

Ratzinger on Theology and Theologians

In 1992, Ratzinger observed that “theology and theologians have become a common and at the same time controversial topic of discussion in the Church, indeed, in Western society in general” (Ratzinger, Nature and Mission, 7). The mid-twentieth century interest in theology and theologians was a phenomenon that was difficult to ignore. Indeed, a few decades earlier, one writer observed that “theology, to the delight of some and to the consternation of others, is ‘in.’ Liberated from stuffy classrooms and stuffier journals, it speaks no longer to an elite, but to the millions—and millions listen” (Granfield, “Introduction,” vii). At that time, theologians were visible members of the public sphere. Indeed, a contemporary observer noted that “articles on theology appear in Look, Atlantic Monthly, and The Saturday Evening Post; and the newspapers of the world recount for four years the daily events of the Second Vatican Council.... Books on theology are best sellers” (Granfield, “Introduction,” vii).

Admittedly, things have changed since the previous century. Today’s theologians do not habitually receive the same degree of attention. Nonetheless, it is undeniable that theology and theologians remain important members of the Church and society (see Cuddy, “Disappearance of Public Theology”).

Why is theology relevant to the Church and society in the contemporary world? With characteristic insight, Ratzinger identified some of the contributions that theologians are expected to make in society. “On the one hand, [the theologian] is supposed to subject the traditions of Christianity to critical examination by the light of reason, to distill from them the essential core which can be appropriated for use today, and thereby also place the institutional Church within her proper limits” (Ratzinger, Nature and Mission of Theology, 7). This function of theology perhaps aligns closest with the nature and identity of the theologian. Theology is faith seeking understanding and is, thus, an ecclesial discipline. And the theologian serves an indispensable role insofar as the theologian seeks to understand, ever more fully, what Christianity is all about.

Second, Ratzinger also described the utility of the theologian in reference to the human “need for religion and transcendence, a need which simply refuses to be ignored, by giving guiding orientations and meaningful content which can be responsibly accepted today” (Ratzinger, Nature and Mission of Theology, 7). If the first task of the theologian is one of ecclesial service, this second task can be described as the cultural and human function of the theologian. In other words, theologians serve humanity insofar as they point to the undeniable orientation of human persons to higher things. No human person is content to remain merely terrestrial. Every human person has a desire for something more than the contingencies of human existence.

Finally, Ratzinger also emphasizes a pastoral dimension of the theologian’s work: “the theologian should also be a comforter of souls, who helps individuals to be reconciled with themselves and to overcome their alienations” (Ratzinger, Nature and Mission of Theology, 7). This dimension resonates with the deepest instincts of the Christian believer. Theology is not a discipline undertaken in isolation from the real world or from real human persons (see Congar, History of Theology, 14–15). Because theology originates from God and is ordered to God, this sacred discipline carries profoundly practical implications. The rigors and expectations of seminary formation reflect the importance of theology for pastoral work and the Church’s unwavering conviction that theology serves the sanctification of souls.

John Paul II on Theology and Pastoral Ministry

In his 1992 post-synodal apostolic exhortation on the formation of priests, Pastores dabo vobis, John Paul II summarized how sacred theology and pastoral ministry stand in a mutually beneficial relationship: “On the one hand, a respectful study of the genuine scientific quality of the individual disciplines of theology will help provide a more complete and deeper training of the pastor of souls as a teacher of faith; and, on the other hand, an appropriate awareness that there is a pastoral goal in view will help the serious and scientific study of theology be more formative for future priests” (John Paul II, Pastores dabo vobis, no. 55). It is not surprising, then, that John Paul II reminded the professors of theology of their “particular educational responsibility” (John Paul II, Pastores dabo vobis, no. 67).

Sacred theology stands at the heart of what pastoral ministry is all about. There is no tension between the priest’s theological formation and his pastoral obligation. “In fact,” John Paul II explains, “the pastoral nature of theology does not mean that it should be less doctrinal or that it should be completely stripped of its scientific nature.” Rather, the pastoral vitality of sacred theology “enables future priests to proclaim the Gospel message through the cultural modes of their age and to direct pastoral action according to an authentic theological vision” (John Paul II, Pastores dabo vobis, no. 55).

Theology shapes effective pastoral ministry. It is an irreplaceable guide for those who minister to the People of God. Sacred theology renders intelligible the wisdom and love of God, showing the logic inherent within the Christian faith. The Christian religion, much more than a mere set of laws, rules, or precepts, pursues saving happiness and authentic freedom.

If the Church’s ministers are insufficiently formed in theological truth, then they are severely hampered in their pastoral efforts to help people find God. Of course, erroneous understandings of Catholic doctrine are among the most evident expressions of ill-formation. “True theology proceeds from faith and aims at leading to the faith. This is the conception of theology which has always been put forward by the Church and, specifically, by her magisterium” (John Paul II, Pastores dabo vobis, no. 53). The ecclesial nature of theological science received his repeated emphasis (John Paul II, Veritatis splendor, no. 109).

Nonetheless, John Paul II also highlights the importance of a complete understanding of the Catholic faith. A partial understanding of the Christian religion is also an impediment to effective pastoral ministry. Thus, it is essentially important that the Church’s ministers possess a “sufficiently broad knowledge of the doctrine of the faith.” This inclusive knowledge of the Church’s teaching is nothing less than “a primary condition for theology.” For “it is simply not possible to develop an ‘intelligentia fidei’ (an understanding of the faith), if the content of the ‘fides’ is not known” (John Paul II, Pastores dabo vobis, no. 57). In other words, since the Catholic faith is essentially unified, pastoral ministry will suffer if the minister does not possess an understanding of the faith in all of its parts. It is not possible to understand the person and the work of Jesus, for example, without also understanding the Church’s teaching about the Trinity and about the sacraments, etc.

All of these themes terminate in John Paul’s concern for the formation of the Church’s pastors. He expressed grief over “the lack of harmony between the traditional response of the Church and certain theological positions, encountered even in Seminaries and in Faculties of Theology, with regard to questions of the greatest importance for the Church and for the life of faith of Christians, as well as for the life of society itself” (John Paul II, Veritatis splendor, no. 4).

VII. Conclusion

God instituted Catholic theology when he created human nature and revealed himself to human persons. God created human nature as a rational nature, capable of understanding reality as originating from and terminating in God. God was not compelled to create. Neither was he compelled to redeem. God’s creative activity and his redemptive activity both proceed from God’s wisdom and goodness. Thus, Catholic theology originates from God and is situated in the human person. Catholic theology reflects God’s goodness and wisdom both in himself and in the human person that he has created, redeemed, and invited to participate in his wisdom and love.

Because the first principles of sacred theology are divinely revealed, Catholic theology is a science of faith. Although human creativity certainly has a place within Catholic theology, human ingenuity is not the first cause of theological inquiry. Faith seeking understanding proceeds from faith. Thus, the defining posture of Catholic theology is one of reception and gratitude. The articles of the faith—precious, supernatural, and holy—reflect the largesse of God. Catholic theology is something that follows upon the wise love God has for his creatures.

Within the dynamics of faith seeking understanding, human reason is not a liability. Catholic theology, by definition, opposes all accounts of knowledge that place faith and reason in fundamental opposition. An emphasis on faith that suppresses reason—sometimes referred to as fideism—is a profound error. Why? Because fideism fundamentally doubts whether humans can actually be elevated by the divine. Reason, even if it is not the ultimate starting point of Catholic theology, is not something that is disadvantageous. Indeed, faith invites understanding. Faith without an order to understanding would not be true faith. Faith is ordered to understanding because creatures of a rational nature receive faith from a God who perfectly knows himself and all that he has created. Therefore, there is nothing disproportionate about the rigorous desire to understand the mysteries of faith within Catholic theology. No question is off limits within the science of faith.

Catholic theology certainly is not rationalism (a conception of reason that denies the legitimacy of faith), but it is preeminently rational. The God who created knows what he has created. The God who redeems knows how he has redeemed his creation. And God communicates an intelligible existence to creatures who seek, by nature, the intelligibility of both creation and the creator.

Because of its origin in God, Catholic theology is a sacred discipline. This book has deliberately made regular reference to “sacred theology.” Because Catholic theology begins with the articles of faith and the God who reveals these articles is, himself, infinitely holy, Catholic theology is itself profoundly imbued with the form of holiness. Catholic theology is not morally neutral. It is not religiously indifferent. It is not indiscriminate when it comes to matters sacred and profane. Rather, Catholic theology necessarily assumes—consistently, essentially, and cohesively—the holiness of God by way of the sanctity of the principles that God has revealed. As a divine science and a holy wisdom, Catholic theology is a sacred discipline.

The motivation behind divine revelation is nothing less than human salvation. Consequently, sacred theology fundamentally transcends the categories and expectations of academia. At numerous points throughout history, sacred theology has been a welcomed member of academic faculties. Nonetheless, Catholic theology has always recognized that its legitimacy as a discipline does not come from academic faculties themselves but rather from God himself. Therefore, the discrete currents, predilections, and preferences of the academy do not exercise supreme authority over sacred theology.

Catholic theology does rely upon the insights of other disciplines in its contemplation of divine truth (e.g., philosophy). All truth is God’s truth. Thus, any truth that other sciences discover or clarify is not a threat to sacred science but only a benefit. Nevertheless, sacred science also recognizes that it is of an order superior to these other auxiliary disciplines. This is why, historically, Catholic theology has been referred to as “the queen of the sciences” (Congar, History of Theology, 53–54). This does not reflect any prejudice against the natural sciences. Natural sciences can be truly scientific disciplines. But the sublimity of sacred theology—because of its divine origination and its beatific orientation—renders it sanctifying in an exclusive way. Practically speaking, this means that Catholic theology has a certain autonomy from the academy—even when it is practiced in harmonious and mutually beneficial union with other scientific disciplines.

Sacred theology is a demanding discipline. It requires much of its practitioners because its God excels all human limitations. This sacred science does not ultimately depend upon the categories of human experience. Although it welcomes art, it is not, properly speaking, an art itself. Sacred theology transcends any individual human presuppositions or personal preferences. It is a science for all—not just the individual. It is a magnanimous discipline. It is an ambitious undertaking that does not suffer from any unmerited hubris. It is ordered to the knowledge of the greatest of objects—divine mysteries—in a way that exceeds all other sciences.

Additionally, the precise distinctions that characterize the practice of sacred theology are signs of its magnanimity. Speculative precision does not frustrate or compromise the sublimity of God and his revelation. Rather, distinctions are the necessary result of human cognition. Those who wish to undertake in a profound way the invitation to understand the faith embrace the requisite precision of this sacred science. The rigor of Catholic theology is the appropriate human response to the sublimity of faith and the sheer scale of its subject.

Although not all authentic expressions of Catholic theology need follow the precise method of medieval scholasticism, for example, historians have pointed to medieval scholasticism as one of the most intricate and impressive expressions of the human desire to understand truly the reality of the faith. The wise Catholic theologian recognizes that he or she needs distinctions in order to understand the simplicity of divine things. Distinctions, thus, are instruments through which human understanding is attained. Without distinctions, human understanding of divine things will not occur. Nonetheless, Catholic theology does not regard distinctions as the end of its contemplative inquiry. Ideas themselves are not the term of this sacred science. Catholic theologians recognize that distinctions must ultimately resolve back into the simplicity of God, even if divine simplicity eludes the understanding of faith that theologians pursue in this life.

Paradoxically, this point brings us to another, namely: Catholic theology is not an elite discipline. Otherwise expressed, it is not a science reserved only for those who have advanced degrees or even a natural facility in matters speculative or theoretical. Within the academy, of course, there is such a thing as an academic hierarchy. And this hierarchy is both necessary and good. The academy rightly protects and cultivates the intellectual guild. Catholic theology, however, is open to all human persons. Anyone who wants to understand the truth that God has revealed can truly pursue the understanding of faith. The only prerequisite for beginning the task of Catholic theology is an earnest desire to understand divine revelation. Mastery of theological sources, academic texts, and historical narratives is not the sine qua non of Catholic theology. Such mastery is, certainly, useful for understanding the faith. Moreover, those who devote their lives to the study of sacred truth will, necessarily, achieve some marked proficiency in these matters. The object of theological contemplation, however, remains God himself—not books, ideas, or narratives about God.

Finally, Catholic theology is a sanctifying discipline. As noted above, Catholic theology is a sacred discipline. As a body of knowledge, it is unlike all other scientific enterprises. It is a divine science originating from and oriented to God. Practitioners of Catholic theology, however, cannot expect to flourish in this sacred discipline without an ever-deepening intimacy with God. There can be no real division, within the theologian, between God as a scientific end and God as a personal end. In other words, it is impossible to divorce the sanctity of sacred theology from the sanctification of its practitioners.

The human person is essentially one—a unified being. Human thinking is inextricably connected to human living. Thus, if a theologian is not living a life ordered to God, his or her theological contemplation will miss the truth about God. Conversely, a theologian who is gravely misguided intellectually will also suffer regrettable consequences existentially. The ultimate personal effect of Catholic theology is the sanctification of the theologian. And, in this sense, we can say that all human persons are called to be theologians. The intellectual efforts of the Catholic theologian to understand the mysteries of faith necessarily flow into the affective life of the human person. To put the matter succinctly, as a Catholic theologian thinks, so he lives; and as he lives, so he thinks.

This brings us back to the topic with which we began: God. Catholic theology stands between God and God. God is the cause of natural reality. God is also the origin of the articles of faith. God is the natural end of all that is, and he is the supernatural end of the human person. God is the beginning and the end of Catholic theology, and all authentic expressions of this sacred discipline rejoice in its God-centered orientation.

Consequently, the ultimate goal of Catholic theologians is to know and love God more fully and to achieve supernatural beatitude, which is nothing less than seeing God face to face.

The Ongoing Question

Questions inform the whole of human experience. They originate the human mind’s deliberate and precise reflection upon reality. Questions asked and questions answered are unique features of the dignity of the human person. Questions unify a discipline and can also affect the entire direction of one’s life.

The question, “What is Catholic theology?” is unavoidably conjoined to another, more foundational, question: “Who is God?” Because God is the creator and redeemer of the world, God is the origin, object, and end of Catholic theology. Consequently, Catholic theology matters for all people. Why? All human persons, inherently, desire to know and to love God. Because God matters, Catholic theology matters.

Any introduction to Catholic theology will be insufficient. The Christian faith is so vast and so profound that it evades simple summary. And yet this is precisely why Catholic theology is so necessary. God’s truth and goodness elicit a response of desire within the human person—a desire for intimate knowledge and intimate union. Ultimately, no one is satisfied with a mere “introduction” to who God is and what God has done. Because human nature is inclined to truth and goodness, everyone wants to understand more about God, who is Truth and Goodness itself.

Thus, all people are wonderfully inclined to the work of theology.